FALL 2012 FINAL EXAM

Directions:  Answer TWO of the following questions in essay form.  I will be looking at how well your response is supported by evidence from the assigned readings.  An adequate response will be AT LEAST three pages using the standard formatting requirements for this class.  All work for this class must be submitted between 11-1230 on Thursday 13 in Lytle 103.  I will not receive any late work in time for it to count towards your final grade.  I will not accept email attachments, although if you would prefer to turn in your materials early I can meet you before Thursday.  

A) Many of the readings for this class are related to the dynamic between so-called popular and elite culture (Davis, Delumeau, Ginsburg, Social Disciplining, The Witch Craze…).  Discuss how the changes in religious culture in the Age of the Reformation relate to the interaction between the ruling classes and those who were ruled.

B) As with all cultural change, the Reformation had important implications for women and gender norms.  Discuss (and don’t leave out the witches).

C) The Protestant Reformation has been classically interpreted as a time of progress and modernization, especially when juxtaposed against the “superstitious” Middle Ages.  More recent scholarship has added some nuance to this model.  Was the Reformation a time of progress or not?

BONUS QUESTION: If you were at the Martin Guerre viewing you may briefly (1.5 pgs) answer the following for extra credit on this final exam.

The events of this film took place in a remote rural village during the Wars of Religion and the Witch Craze in France.  Discuss how much of an impact these monumental historical events had on the day-to-day lives of these peasants whose lifestyles were characteristic of how a vast majority of Europeans lived at the time.

History 238 Fall 2012 MIDTERM

Directions:  Answer TWO of the following questions in essay form.  I will be looking at how well your response is supported by evidence from the assigned readings.  An adequate response will be AT LEAST three pages using the standard formatting requirements for this class.

1) The Reformation was arguable more a product of late medieval society and culture than it was of Luther's theology.  Describe the social and cultural factors that made the Reformation possible, particularly in Northern Europe.

2) The Reformation developed in (and for some, contributed to) an atmosphere of profound anxiety in the sixteenth century.  Describe the sense of crisis in the sixteenth century and the factors that contributed to it.

3) Luther was not a lone actor in the religious revolution that carries his name.  Describe the social context that Luther's career began in, and how political and social conditions in the early sixteenth century contributed to the success of his movement.  How did patronage and social networks contribute to the development and spread of the Protestant movement.

The Ship of Fools

This is a repost of an online exhibition of Sebastian Brant's Narrenschiff, which was originally published in 1494 and went through several subsequent editions over the next couple decades.  Historically significant for being one of the earliest "bestsellers" of the early print age, it is also one of the early commissions of a young Albrect Durer.

By satirically taking the voice of "Folly", the author had a sort of poetic license to criticize the social institutions of his day and what he viewed as the political and religious corruption around him.  This is one of many examples of the sense of disillusionment felt by many intellectuals of the time, especially in Northern Europe.

The Ship of Fools was a common allegory of the time that went after the much wider theme of how human temptation leads the leaders of society astray.

Late Medieval Rosary

An important element of the cultural background of the Reformation was the late-medieval fashion of the memento mori or "reminder of death". Influenced by the Black Death, which seemed to strike people down at random, as well as the anxieties brought about by early modern social and political change, people continuously reminded themselves of the futility and transience of this life. With a heightened awareness that death could come at any time many in European society focused on being constantly prepared for the Final Judgement.

A common theme in the art of this period is a fixation on the macabre. Images of death and decay reminded the viewer of the fate that awaited all regardless of social standing. For the social elite in particular it was a type of ostentatious humility by which they paradoxically decried as vanity the very things they used to differentiate themselves from their social inferiors.

This rosary from the early sixteenth century is an outstanding example of urban lay piety on the eve of the Reformation. With it, the act of meditation through repetitive prayers became a reflection one's mortal frailty, and that someday soon the body would be consumed by worms and decay. As humbling as this thought is, the vehicle is anything but modest. The intricate working and the valuable materials used suggest that this object was meant for a very wealthy individual, yet this was not meant to be a public sense of display of status in the way that clothing was. Thus while it was considered virtuous to for the elite to reflect on death and the vanity of wealth, there was no reason why it couldn't be done in style.

Luther and the "New Media"

One of the things we emphasize in this class is how the Protestant Reformation was the product of a particular social, cultural, and political context instead of a sudden realization that the Catholic Church was corrupt. Luther's significance is not that he was the first religious reformer (he was not) but in the fact that he was the first reformer to achieve notable success.

Part of the historical context of the Reformation was the advent of the printing press. Although Guttenberg's invention appeared several decades before Luther's 95 theses, Luther and his inner circle were masters at exploiting the possibilities of this revolutionary invention. This article from The Economist is a good introduction to how Luther used the power of the press to spread his ideas.

Divine Apparitions in Everyday Objects

In looking at Reformation culture, one of the overarching themes is the balance between the sacred and the profane, the divine and the everyday. While every side of the confessional divide agreed that supernatural forces interacted with the physical world, this agreement tended to break down over the meaning of the sacred, its relationship with everyday life, and the authority to verify and interpret supernatural occurrences. It is a common misperception that Catholicism was more "superstitious" than Protestantism, but while Protestants did not believe in the efficacy of saints' relics for example, they were still in many ways superstitious by modern standards.

Apparitions were extremely common in pre-modern religion and people often perceived a supernatural meaning in random, accidental events. However as this montage shows, this tendency is still alive and well today in our supposedly modern, rational world. This can raise some interesting questions about the meaning of modernity, and when/how the transition to modernity took place.

Final Exam Spring 2011

Answer two of the following questions in essay form. An adequate answer will be at least 4 pages in length using the formatting guidelines linked to the syllabus. The final grade will be based on how well your response incorporates evidence from the reading assignments.

1) The Cheese and the Worms describes Menocchio's trial as part of a larger "war on popular culture". Discuss the social and cultural factors behind Menocchio's trial as well as the witch craze in the sixteenth century. How do these phenomena fit into the trend of "social disciplining"?

2) The readings on "social disciplining" and "confessionalization" suggest that religious reform and the emphasis on "godliness" went hand in hand with the centralization of state authority. Discuss.

3) How did the Reformation affect women?